The Science of Horse Training Demystified: Operant Conditioning

You work to get paid, you buckle your seatbelt to make the alarm go off, you don’t speed past a cop car to avoid getting a ticket; many of our actions are governed by consequences. Likely, if you didn’t get paid, you wouldn’t go to work, and if there weren’t a threat of a fine, you would drive as fast as you wanted. However, when our behavior reliably predicts a certain outcome, we learn to adjust accordingly so that things work out in our favor. This is operant conditioning in action.

Operant Conditioning: The Key to Shaping Our Horses' Behavior

So far, we delved into learning processes that deal with involuntary behaviors. Habituation and classical conditioning occur subconsciously; our horse does not decide to stop reacting to the traffic that passes by every day or to get excited when you go into the feed room. This, instead, happens automatically on a subconscious level. 

While what we have learned so far helps our horses get comfortable in their environment and in a good mental state for learning, we still need the tools to actually teach them what we want them to do. After all, training is about teaching our horses to perform often complex behaviors so we can work with, ride, and live beside them harmoniously.

But, how do we do that? The answer: operant conditioning. 

What is Operant Conditioning? 

Operant conditioning is a learning process in which behaviors are shaped or changed based on their consequences. Individuals learn to modify their behavior based on the outcome it produces. Actions that lead to positive outcomes will increase a behavior, while negative consequences will decrease a behavior. We will look in-depth into how consequences are used to modify behavior later. For now, let's meet the man who discovered it.

We can teach our horses a wide variety of behaviors with operant conditioning

The Father of Operant Conditioning: B.F. Skinner

B.F. Skinner developed the theory of operant conditioning, building on the earlier work of Edward L. Thorndike (hence why operant conditioning is sometimes called Skinnerian Conditioning). Using a contraption called the Skinner box, he discovered that behaviors were strengthened by pleasant consequences and weakened by negative ones; these concepts were later coined reinforcement and punishment. 

A Skinner Box

The Skinner boxes, or operant conditioning chambers, were specially designed boxes that allowed him to precisely deliver food or electrical shock to his subjects. Often using rats or pigeons, the animals could be rewarded or punished for certain behaviors, usually pulling a lever or pushing a button.

These boxes allowed Skinner to observe how consequences changed the animal’s likelihood to perform a behavior. He discovered that there were four possible outcomes that could be used to modify behavior. These were called the four quadrants of operant conditioning. 

The Four Quadrants of Operant Conditioning

The four quadrants of operant conditioning provide a framework for the possible consequences we can deliver and how they affect behavior. Of the four quadrants, two will lead to an increase in a behavior, and two will lead to a decrease in behavior. The graphic below provides a visual of how the four quadrants relate. 

Outcomes that increase a behavior are called reinforcement.

Reinforcement can be either positive or negative (called Positive Reinforcement and Negative Reinforcement).

Outcomes that decrease a behavior are called punishment.

Likewise, punishment can be either positive or negative (called Positive Punishment and Negative Punishment). 

Now, let's take a closer look at each of the four quadrants. 

Negative Reinforcement

Negative reinforcement has been the most widely used method to train horses for centuries. You likely have heard of it used under names like 'traditional horsemanship' or 'natural horsemanship', but what is really being used is negative reinforcement. Negative reinforcement increases desired behavior by removing a stimulus when the desired action is performed. It is called negative because it subtracts, or takes away, a stimulus, not because it is bad. Because the motivation to perform the desired behavior comes from the removal of the stimulus, the stimulus must be aversive or unpleasant so that its removal leads to the relief the animal seeks. 

Negative reinforcement has been used to train horses for hundreds of years and it can be a very effective way of modifying equine behavior. Horses are sensitive animals that desire comfort and, therefore, can quickly learn what evasive maneuvers they

need to perform to make the aversive stimulus stop. 

Lunging systems work with negative reinforcement by applying pressure when the horse moves their head out of position

Horses trained with negative reinforcement can be trained to be very obedient and reliable; however, since they are compelled to act with aversive and sometimes increasing pressure, they can become shut down and robotic. If the stimuli used to train are aversive enough, or the horse's mental state is not taken into account, a negative classically conditioned associate can form (remember negative associations from the last article) making the horses tense, shut down, or resistant to training.

Positive Reinforcement

Positive reinforcement makes teaching targeting easy

Positive reinforcement will also increase desired behaviors; however, instead of taking away an aversive pressure, it involves giving your horse something pleasant as a reward for doing what you asked. The reward can be anything from verbal praise, a pat, or even the opportunity to perform a favorite behavior. However, the reward has to be something the horse really enjoys; therefore, treats are most often used since the vast majority of horses really like eating. 

Positive reinforcement is often paired with a marker signal. A marker signal is a distinctive sound that is given the moment the horse performs a desired behavior to 'mark' the action. This tells the horse that what they just did was correct and gives the trainer a couple of seconds to procure a treat.  

Unlike negative reinforcement, positive reinforcement encourages the horse to actively participate in their training. Because they want to earn a reward, they will try to figure out what the trainer is asking and willingly offer behavoirs to find out what the trainer wants. Training is transformed into a game that engages the horse's natural curiosity, willingness, and joy. It is not uncommon for horses trained with positive reinforcement to stand at the gate waiting for their trainers to arrive.

R+ encourages horses to become active participants in their training

Positive reinforcement has been used to train animals for decades, but it is relatively new in the horse world. The method has been quickly taking a foothold in equine communities as more trainers are discovering the joy of working with their horses in a way that encourages willing participation. 

Positive Punishment

While reinforcement serves to increase a behavior, punishment decreases it. So, positive punishment adds a stimulus to decrease an undesirable behavior. Forms of outdated traditional horsemanship and, to some extent, certain sects of natural horsemanship rely on positive punishment to suppress undesirable actions. This can involve hitting the horse or using a whip when they bite, buck, or refuse a jump. 

This stimulus must be aversive enough to strongly discourage the behavior. It is hard to use punishment effectively; if it does not extinguish the behavior after a couple of repetitions, it is unlikely that punishment will be able to eradicate the behavior. Unlike negative reinforcement, escalating pressure does not work to eliminate unwanted behaviors and instead desensitizes the horse to the punishment. 

Yanking on the leadrope when a horse rears is an example of P+

This can bring about welfare concerns if too much pressure is used to avoid recurrence, or if it is used ineffectively excessively.  Additionally, the reason behind the behavior must be thoroughly understood before attempting punishment. For instance, if the horse is acting out because they are scared and you whip them as punishment, you are teaching them that their fear was valid. This can trigger a stronger reaction in the future. Animals trained excessively with positive punishment are often fearful, mistrusting, and explosive. 

Negative Punishment

When opting to use punishment in training, negative punishment should be chosen whenever possible over positive punishment. Negative punishment involves removing a desirable stimulus to decrease an unwanted behavior. 

This is most often seen when teaching a horse how to accept treats when training with positive reinforcement. The horse is trained over a stall guard or fenceline, and if they get too aggressive when taking food, the trainer can simply step away, removing the opportunity to earn reinforcers for a couple of seconds before recommencing training. 

Trainers still have to be careful when using negative punishment and ensure that the horse does not become confused or frustrated, which can, in turn, increase undesirable behaviors. However, when used correctly, negative punishment does not carry the same welfare concerns as positive punishment since an aversive stimulus is not being used on the horse. 

Alternatives to Punishment

Punishment can often be ineffective, cause fear or stress, and lead to welfare concerns, and therefore should be avoided at all costs. However, every horse will display unwanted behaviors at some point in their training that will have to be dealt with. Extinction and differential reinforcement of an incompatible behavior are alternatives to punishment. 

Extinction

All behaviors that are consistently displayed have something reinforcing them. If you can locate what is reinforcing an undesired behavior and eliminate it, you can extinguish it. Extinction involves removing the reinforcement that maintained the behavior. Over time, without reinforcement, the behavior will eventually decrease and then disappear. 

Unwanted behaviors often get worse before going away

However, the extinction process must be seen through to the end, and reinforcement must be completely withheld for the behavior to go away. Initially, extinction can lead to frustration as the horse tries to figure out why the reinforcement stopped, and extinction bursts, a periodic increase of the unwanted behavior, occur before it begins to fade away. It can be hard to pinpoint exactly what is reinforcing an unwanted behavior, and impossible to eliminate it completely, making extinction unfeasible in many cases. 

In cases where you can use extinction, pairing it with differential reinforcement maximizes effectiveness. 

Differential Reinforcement of an Incompatible Behavior

The best way to get rid of undesirable behaviors is with differential reinforcement of an incompatible behavior. Differential reinforcement relies on using positive reinforcement to curb unwanted behaviors by reinforcing a behavior that is incompatible with the undesirable one. Because it involves shaping a new response and not punishing the horse, differential reinforcement does not have the same negative side effects or welfare concerns that punishment does. In fact, just like with positive reinforcement, differential reinforcement turns training into a game as the horse troubleshoots to figure out what will earn them a treat.

Teaching your horse to stand at a cone can help prevent them from crowding you during training

It works like this: pick a behavior that your horse cannot perform at the same time as the undesirable one and reinforce that. For instance, if your horse bites at you, you can reinforce them for holding their head out straight in front of them. Because they cannot bite at you and hold their head out straight at the same time, once they are proficient in keeping their head away, the biting will stop. A horse that rushes through gates or stall doors can be taught to touch a target located away from the door. That way, they are not near the gate when you go to open it and, therefore, can not barge through. 

Differential reinforcement of an incompatible behavior can take a little bit of creativity on the part of the trainer, as you’ll have to think of an incompatible behavior to reinforce for every unwanted behavior, but it can be far more effective than punishment.

The Shift in the Horse Industry 

For thousands of years, humans have trained horses primarily with a mixture of negative reinforcement and punishment. In the 80’s and 90’s, a concise training system that promised to quickly and effectively train a horse became popular. This method, called natural horsemanship, was popularized by personalities like Pat Parelli, Monty Roberts, and Clinton Anderson. 

The Pitfalls of Natural Horsemanship

Even though natural horsemanship claims to use natural herd dynamics to train the horse, what it really is is negative reinforcement, just many of its practitioners do not know it. Natural horsemanship rapidly gained popularity because it worked fast and followed a clear framework that was easy to teach, allowing anyone to use it.

Natural horsemanship relies on discomfort and aversive stimuli

However, natural horsemanship and negative reinforcement in general emphasize obedience over autonomy and compliance over active participation. And many of these methods justify their training with dominance theory, a disproven theory that led people to believe they had to be the boss of their horse and make them listen so they could serve as the horse's leader.

Even though these methods can create responsive, obedient horses, animals subjected to these training methods can become robotic and shut down, responding simply because they have to. 

R+ has been used to train zoo animals for decades

Finding a Better Way: The Popularization of R+

Over the past several years, more trainers have discovered these pitfalls of natural horsemanship and begun seeking more ethical ways of working with horses that promote the physical and mental well-being of equines. Innovative horse trainers like Alexandra Kurland and Shawna Karrash turned to the world of exotic animal training, where positive reinforcement and clicker training have been used for decades to train everything from chickens to lions. 

Unlike negative reinforcement, R+ encourages active participation and curiosity and allows the trainer to add elements of choice, respecting their trainees' autonomy. When done properly, it does not carry the same welfare concerns as negative reinforcement since the trainer does not need to use pressure or discomfort to train the animal. 

Horses can be trained willingly with R+

This new way of working with horses has been shaking up the horse world. Contrary to what many believe, horses can be taught all the same behaviors with R+ that are traditionally taught with R-. When trained with an experienced R+ trainer, the horse can even respond to the same cues as a traditionally trained horse (for instance, a pull on the reins to turn or squeeze with the leg to go forward), but the method and emotional state behind the behaviors will be different. 

Those interested in training with positive reinforcement can find further reading below:

The Ultimate Guide to Positive Reinforcement Training for Horses

The Beginner’s Guide to Clicker Training

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Armed with knowledge about operant conditioning, you can now make conscious changes to the way your horse behaves.